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'Spintronics' for next-generation computers

Using powerful lasers, Hui Zhao, assistant professor of physics and astronomy at the University of Kansas, and graduate student Lalani Werake have discovered a new way to recognize currents of spinning electrons within a semiconductor.

Their findings could lead the way to development of superior computers and electronics. Results from their work in KU's Ultrafast Laser Lab would be reported in the recent issue of Nature Physics, a leading peer-evaluated journal, and was posted online in early August.

Zhao and Werake research spin-based electronics, dubbed "spintronics."

"The goal is to replace everything - from computers to memory devices - to have higher performance and less energy consumption," said Zhao.

The KU investigator said that future advancements to microchips would require a different approach for transmitting the sequences of ones and zeros that make up digital information.

"We have been using the charge of the electron for several decades," said Zhao. "But right now the size of each device is just 30 to 50 nanometers, and you don't have a number of atoms remaining on that tiny scale. We can't continue that way anymore because we're hitting a fundamental limit".

Instead of using the presence or absence of electronic charges, spintronics relies on the direction of an electron's rotation to convey data.

"Roughly speaking, an electron can be viewed as a tiny ball that spins like a baseball," said Zhao. "The difference is that a baseball can spin at any speed, but an electron can only spin at a certain speed - either counterclockwise or clockwise. Therefore, we can use one spin state to represent 'zero' and another to represent 'one.' Because a single electron can carry this information, this takes much less time and much less energy".

However, one major hurdle for spintronics scientists has been the difficulty in detecting the flow of spinning electrons in real time.

"We haven't been able to monitor the velocity of those spinning electrons, but velocity is linked to the spin current," Zhao said. "So there's been no way to directly detect the spin current so far".

The discovery by Zhao and Werake changes that.

The KU scientists have discovered that shining a laser beam on a piece of semiconductor generates different color lights if the spinning electrons are flowing, and the brightness of the new light is correlation to the strength of the spin current.

The optical effect, known as "second-harmonic generation," can monitor spin-current in real time without altering the current itself. Zhao compares his new method with a police officer's radar gun, which tracks a car's speed as it passes.

This vastly improves upon spin-current analysis now in use, which the KU researcher says is akin to analyzing still photographs to determine a car's speed, long after the car has sped away.

"Spintronics is still in the research phase, and we hope that this new technology can be used in labs to look at problems that interest researchers," said Zhao. "As spintronics become industrialized, we expect this could become a routine technique to check the quality of devices, for example".

Supercomputer unravels structures in DVD materials

Eventhough the storage of films and music on a DVD is part of our digital world, the physical basis of the storage mechanism is not understood in detail. In the current issue of the leading journal Nature Materials, scientists from J�lich, Finland, and Japan provide insight into the read and write processes in a DVD. This knowledge should enable improved storage materials to be developed. (DOI: 10.1038/NMAT2931).

Storage of information is done in a DVD in the form of microscopic bits (each less than 100 nanometres in size) in a thin layer of a polycrystalline alloy containing several elements. The bits can have a disordered, amorphous or an ordered, crystalline structure. The transition between the two phases lasts only a few nanoseconds and can be triggered by a laser pulse. Common alloys for storage materials such as DVD-RAMs or Blu-ray Discs contain germanium (Ge), antimony (Sb) und tellurium (Te) and are known as GST after the initials of the elements. The most popular alloys for DVD-RW are AIST alloys, which contain small amounts of silver (Ag) and indium (In) as well as antimony (Sb) and tellurium (Te).

"Both alloy families contain antimony and tellurium and appear to have much in common, but the phase change mechanisms are quite different", explains Dr. Robert Jones of Forschungszentrum J�lich, who has collaborated with an international team on the problem. In addition to experimental data and x-ray spectra from the Japanese synchrotron SPring-8, the world's most powerful x-ray source, the team used extensive simulations on the J�lich supercomputer JUGENE. The combination of experiment and simulations has enabled the structures of both phases to be determined for the first time and allowed the development of a model to explain the rapid phase change.

The phase change in AIST alloys proceeds from the outside of the bit, where it adjoins the crystalline surroundings, towards its interior. In Nature Materials, the team explains this using a "bond exchange model", where the local environment in the amorphous bit is changed by small movements of an antimony atom (see figure). A sequence of a number of such steps results in reorientation (crystallization), without requiring empty regions or large motions. The antimony atoms, stimulated by the laser pulse, have simply exchanged the strengths of the bonds to two neighbours, hence the name �bond exchange" model.

The team had clarified the phase transition in GST materials in earlier work (DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevB.80.020201). Here the amorphous bit crystallizes via nucleation, i.e. small crystallites formed in the interior grow rapidly until they covered the whole bit. The speed of the transition can be explained by observing that amorphous and crystalline phases contain the same structural units, "�ABAB" rings. These four-membered rings contain two germanium or antimony atoms (A) and two tellurium atoms (B) and can rearrange in the available empty space without breaking a number of atomic bonds.

The calculation of the structure of amorphous AIST is the largest yet performed in this area of research, with simulations of 640 atoms over the comparatively long time of several hundred picoseconds. Some 4000 processors of the J�lich supercomputer JUGENE were used for over four months in order to obtain the necessary precision. In addition to sheer computing power, however, experience in scientific computing and the simulation of condensed matter is essential. Jones notes: "Forschungszentrum J�lich is one of the few places where all these aspects come together."

The deeper theoretical understanding of the processes involved in writing and erasing a DVD should aid the development of phase change storage media with longer life, larger capacity, or shorter access times.